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Antibiotics resistance mechanism

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  Bacteria develop ability to hydrolyze these drugs using   β lactamase confers resistance to penicillin e.g. E. coli, Staph epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae add  β lactamase inhibitor  e.g. clavulanic acid in amoxicillin-clavulanate (Augmentin) Genetic mutation of  mecA carried by Staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCCmec) mobile genetic unit a bacterial gene encoding a penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a).  PBP2a has reduced affinity for antibiotics confers resistance to methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin e.g. MRSA SCCmec type IV has less genetic elements and is specific to CA-MRSA, making CA-MRSA less multi-drug resistant Altered cell wall permeability confers resistance to tetracyclines, quinolones, trimethoprim and  β lactam antibiotics Creation of biofilm barrier  provides an environment where offending bacteria can multiply safe from the hoste immune system Salmonella Staph epidermidis Active efflux pumps confers resistance to erythromycin and tetracyclin
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Pharmacology: Antibiotics

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  Classes of antibiotics  include the following: Aminoglycosides. Carbapenems. Cephalosporins. Fluoroquinolones. Glycopeptides and lipoglycopeptides (such as vancomycin) Macrolides (such as erythromycin and azithromycin) Monobactams (aztreonam) Oxazolidinones (such as linezolid and tedizolid)
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What is poikilocytosis?

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Red Blood Cells -I look for these changes in red cells at work :) RBCs  carry oxygen and nutrients to your body's tissues and organs. If your  RBCs  are irregularly shaped, they may not be able to carry enough oxygen. Poikilocytosis is usually caused by another medical condition, such as  anemia , liver disease, alcoholism, or an inherited  blood  disorder.   Poikilocytosis is the medical term for having abnormally shaped red blood cells (RBCs) in your blood. Abnormally shaped blood cells are called poikilocytes. Normally, a person’s RBCs (also called erythrocytes) are disk-shaped with a flattened center on both sides. Poikilocytes may: be flatter than normal be elongated, crescent-shaped, or teardrop-shaped have pointy projections have other abnormal features  Common symptoms of other blood-related disorders, such as anemia, include: fatigue pale skin weakness shortness of breath These particular symptoms are a result of not enough oxygen being delivered to the body’s tissues and
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Microbial Diversity

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  Microbial diversity  can be defined as the range of different kinds of unicellular organisms, bacteria, archaea, protists, and fungi.  Our new understanding of  microbial diversity  will allow us to cure disease, engineer and conserve our environment, manufacture better products, grow more food, colonize other worlds, and so much more.
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Marine microbes

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  MARINE BACTERIA THAT “FIX” NITROGEN. Trichodesmium . Microphotograph by Angel White, Oregon State University. ... Heterocystus cyanobacteria . ... Crocosphaera. ... Uncultivated cyanobacteria group A (UCYN-A) ... Alphaproteobacteria and gammaproteobacteria . ... Ammonium oxidizing bacteria (AOB) ... Nitrite oxidizing bacteria.
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  Bacteria are tiny microorganisms that are made up of a single cell. They’re very diverse and can have a large variety of shapes and structural features. Bacteria can live in almost every conceivable environment, including in or on the human body. Only a handful of bacteria cause infections in humans. These bacteria are referred to as pathogenic bacteria. Viruses are another type of tiny microorganism, although they’re even smaller than bacteria. Like bacteria, they’re very diverse and have a variety of shapes and features. Viruses are parasitic. That means they require living cells or tissue in which to grow.
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Bacteria

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  Bacteria are single celled microbes. The cell structure is simpler than that of other organisms as there is no nucleus or membrane bound organelles. Instead their control centre containing the genetic information is contained in a single loop of DNA. Some bacteria have an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid. The plasmid often contains genes that give the bacterium some advantage over other bacteria. For example it may contain a gene that makes the bacterium resistant to a certain antibiotic. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. In this process the bacterium, which is a single cell, divides into two identical daughter cells. Binary fission begins when the DNA of the bacterium divides into two (replicates). The bacterial cell then elongates and splits into two daughter cells each with identical DNA to the parent cell. Each daughter cell is a clone of the parent cell.
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